REFERENCES

     1. Ainsworth MDS: Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Attachment. Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 1976

     2. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnosis and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Ed 3. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 1980

     3. Amir S, Brown ZW, Amit Z. The role of endorphins in stress: Evidence and speculations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 4:77-86;1980

     4. Anderson CO, Mason WA: Competitive social strategies in groups of deprived and experienced rhesus monkeys. Dev Psychobiol 11:289-299, 1980

     5. Anisman HL, Ritch M, Sklar LS: Noradrenergic and dopaminergic interactions escape behavior. Psychopharmacology 74:263-268, 1981

     6. Arbila S, Langer SZ: Morphine and beta endorphin inhibit release of noradrenaline from cerebral cortex but not of dopamine from rat striatum. Nature 271:559-560, 1978

     7. Bach-y-Rita: Habitual violence and self-mutilation. Am J Psychiatry 131:1018-1020, 1974

     8. Becker E: The Denial of Death. New York, The Free Press, 1973

     9. Beecher HK: Pain in men wounded in battle. Ann Surg 123:96-105

   10. Berlyne DE: Conflict Arousal in Curiosity. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1960

   11. Bettelheim B: Individual and mass behavior in extreme situations. J Abnorm Soc Psychol 38:417-452, 1943

   12. Blank AS: The unconscious flashback to the war in Vietnam veterans. In Sonnenberg SM, Blank AS, Talbot JA (eds): Stress and Recovery of Vietmam Veterans. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1985

   13. Bonnet KS, Miller JS, Simon EJ: The effects of chronic opiate treatment and social isolation on opiate receptors in the rodent brain. In Kosterlitz HW (ed): Opiate and Endogenous Opioid Peptides. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1976

   14. Bowlby J: Attachment and Loss. Vol 1: Attachment. New York, Basic Books, 1973

   15. Bowby J: Attachment and Loss. Vol 2: Separation. New York, Basic Books, 1973

   16. Bowby J: Violence in the family as a disorder of the attachment and caregiving systems. Am J Psychoanal 44:9-27, 1984

   17. Brett EA, Ostroff R: Imagery and posttraumatic stress disorder: An overview. Am J Psychiatry 142:417-424, 1985

   18. Brown GL, Ebert ME, Boyer PF, et al: Aggression, suicide and serotonin: Relationships to CSF amine metabolites. Am J Psychiatry 139:741-746, 1982

   19. Bunney WE, Garland BL: Lithium and its possible mode of action. In Post RM, Ballenger JC (eds): Neurobiology of Mood Disorders. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1984

   20. Burgess AW, Hartman CR, McCormack A: Abused to abuser: Antecedents of socially deviant behavior. Am J Psychiatry 144:1431-1436, 1987

   21. Burgstein A: Posttraumatic flashbacks, dream disturbances and mental imagery. J Clin Psychiatry 46:374-378, 1985

   22. Carmen EH, Reiker PP, Mills T: Victims of violence and psychiatric illness. Am J Psychiatry 141:378-379, 1984

   23. Cermak TL, Brown S: Interactional group therapy with the adult children of alcoholics. Int J Group Psychother 32:375-389, 1982

   24. Cicchetti D: The emergence of developmental psychopathology. Child Dev 55:1-7, 1984

   25. Coe CL, Wiener S, Rosenberg LT, et al: Endocrine and immune response tos to separation and maternal loss in nonhuman primates. In Reite M, Fields T (eds): The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation. Orlando, Academic Press, 1985

   26. Cohen MR, Pinchas M, et al: Stress induced plasma endorphin immunoreactivity may predict postoperative morphine usage. Psychiatry Res 6:7-12, 1982

   27. Cold J, Allolio B, Rees LH: Raised plasma metenkephalin in patients who habitually mutilate themselves. Lancet 2:545-546, 1983

   28. Colt EW, Wardlaw SL, Frantz AG: The effect of running on plasma beta endorphin. Life Sci 28:1637-1640, 1981

   29. Cooper AM: Masochism: In Glick RA, Meyers DI (eds): Current Psychological Perspectives. Hillsdale, The Analytic Press, 1988

   30. Delaney R, Tussi D, Gold PE: Longterm potentiation as a neurophysiological analog of memory. Pharmocol Biochem Behav 18:137-139, 1983

   31. Dutton D, Painter SL: Traumatic bonding: The development of emotional attachments in battered women and other relationships of intermittent abuse. Victimology 6:139-155, 1981

   32. Eich JE: The cue-dependent nature of state dependent retrival. Memory Cognition 8:157-168, 1980

   33. Erschak GM: The escalation and maintenance of spouse abuse: A cybernetic model. Victimology 9:247-253, 1984

   34. Fabre-Nys C, Meller RE, Keverne EG: Opiate antogonists stimulate affiliative behavior in monkeys. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 18:137-139, 1983

   35. Ferenczi S: Confusion of tongues between the adult and the child: The language of tenderness and the language of passion. In Ferenczi S: Problems and Methods of Psychoanalysis. London, Hogarth Press, 1955

   36. Field T: Attachment of psychobiological attunement: Being on the same wavelength. In Reite M, Fields T (eds): The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation. Orlando, Academic Press, 1985

   37. Field T: Interaction and attachment in normal and atypical infants. J Consult Clin Psychol 55:1-7, 1987

   38. Finkelhor D, Brown A: The traumatic nature of child sexual abuse. Am J Orthopsychiatry 55:530-541, 1985

   39. Fish Murray CC, Koby EV, van der Kolk BA: Evolving ideas: The effect of abuse on children's thought. In van der Kolk BA (ed): Psychological Trauma. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1987

   40. Fleming JB: Stopping Wife Abuse. Garden City, Anchor Books, 1979

   41. Fox RP, Narcissistic rage and the problem of combat aggression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 311:807-811, 1974

   42. Freud S: Moses and Monotheism (1939). In Complete Psychological Works. Vol 18. Translated and edited by J Strachey. London, Hogarth Presss, 1954

   43. Freud S: The aetiology of hysteria (1896). In Complete Psychological Works, Standard Ed. Vol 3 Translated and edited by J Strachey. London, Hogarth Press, 1954

   44. Freud S: Beyond the pleasure principle (1920). In Complete Psychological Works, Standard Ed. Vol 3 Translated and edited by J Strachey. London, Hogarth Press, 1954
   45. Freud S: Group psychology and analysis of the ego (1921). In Complete Psychological Works, Standard Ed. Vol 18. Translated and edited by J Strachey. London, Hogarth Press, 1955

   46. Freize I: Investigating the causes and consequences of marital rape. J Women Culture Soc 8:532-553, 1983

   47. Gelinas DJ: The persistent negative effects of incest. Psychiatry 46:312-332, 1983

   48. Gelles RJ: The Violent Home. Beverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1972

   49. Gessa G, Paglietta E, Pellegrini-Quarantotty B: Induction of copulatory behavor in sexually inactive rats by naxolone. Science 204:203-205, 1979

   50. Gold M, Pottash AC, Sweeney D, et al: Antimanic, anti-depressant and antipanic effects of opiates: Clinical neuroanatomical and biochemical evidence. Ann NY Acad Sci 398:140-150, 1982

   51. Gold PE, Zornetzer SF:The mnemom and its juices: Neuromodulation of memory processes. Behav Neural Biol 38:151-189, 1983

   52. Graf H, Mallin R: The syndrome of the wrist cutter. Am J Psychiatry 124:74-80, 1967

   53. Green AH: Child Maltreatment. New York, Jason Aronson, 1980

   54. Green AH: Self-destructive behavior in battered children. Am J Psychiatry 135:579-582, 1978

   55. Groth AN: Sexual trauma in the life histories of sex offenders. Victomology 4:6-10, 1979

   56. Hahn EF, Fishman J: Changes in rat brain opiate receptor content upon castration and testosterone replacement. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 90:819-823

   57. Haley SA: When the patient reports atrocities: Specific treatment considerations of the Vietnam veteran. Arch Gen Psychiatry 30:191-196, 1974

   58. Harlow HF, Harlow MK: Psychopathology in monkeys. In Kimmel HD (ed): Experimental Psychopathology. New York, Academic Press, 1971

   59. Hendin H, Pollinger-Haas A, Singer P: The influence of pre-combat personality on posttraumatic stress disorders. Compr Psychiatry 24:530-534, 1983

   60. Herman BH, Hammock MK, Arthur-Smith A, et al. Naltrexone decreases self injurious behavior. Ann Neurol 22:550-552, 1987

   61. Herman JL: Father Daughter Incest. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1981

   62. Hilberman E: Overview: The wife-beater's wife reconsidered. Am J Psychiatry 137:974-975; 1980

   63. Hilberman E, Munson M: Sixty battered women. Victimology 2:460-471, 1978

   64. Hilgard JR: Anniversary reactions in parents precipitated by children. Psychiatry 16:73-80, 1953

   65. Hilgard JR: Depressive and psychotic states as anniversaries to sibling death in childhood. Int Psychiatry Clin 6:197-211, 1969

   66. Hoffman RS, Ratner AM: A reinforcement model of imprinting: Implications for socialization in monkeys and men. Psychol Rev 80: 527-524, 1973

   67. Holen A The long-term psychological effects of an oilrig disaster. Paper Presented at the Fourth Annual Conference of the Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Baltimore, 1987

   68. Horowitz M, Wilner N, Kaltrider N: Signs and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 37:85-92, 1980

   69. Horowitz MJ: Stress Response Syndromes. Ed 2, New York, Jason Aronson, 1986

   70. Horowitz MJ, Becker SS: The compulsion to repeat trauma: Experimental study of intrusive thinking after stress. J Nerv Ment Dis 153:32-40, 1971

   71. Jaffe P, Wolfe D, Wilson SK, et al: Family violence and child adjustment: A comparative analysis of girls' and boys' behavioral symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 143:74-77, 1986

   72. James J, Meyerding J: Early sexual experiences as a factor in prostitution. Arch Sex Behav 7:31-42, 1977

   73. Janal MN, Colt EWD, Clark WC, et al. Pain sensitivity, mood and plasma endocrine levels in man following long-distance running: Effects of naxolone. Pain 19:13-25, 1984

   74. Janet P: The Major Symptoms of Hysteria. London and New York, Macmillan, 1907

   75. Janet P: L'Automatisme Psychologique. Paris, Alcan, 1889

   76. Janet P: The Mental State of Hystericals. Paris, Alcan, 1911

   77. Kagan J, Reznick S, Snidman N: The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Dev 58: 1459-1473, 1987

   78. Kardiner A: The Traumatic Neuroses of War. New York, P. Hoeber, 1941

   79. Kelly DD: The role of endorphins in stress-related analgesia. Ann NY Acad Sci 398::260-271

   80. Kempe RS, Kempe CH: Child Abuse. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1978

   81. Kihlstrom JF: Conscious, subconscious, unconscious: A cognitive perspective. In Bowers KS, Meichenbaum D (eds): The Unconscious Reconsidered. New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1984

   82. Kilpatrick DG, Veronen LJ, Best CL: Factors predicting psychological distress in rape victims. In Figley C (ed): Trauma and Its Wake. New York, Brunner/Mazel, 1985

   83. Kling A,Steklis HD: A neural substrate for affliative behavior in non-human primates. Brain Behav Evol 13:216-238, 1976

   84. Kolb L: Neuropsychological hypothesis explaining posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 144:989-995. 1987

   85. Kraemer GW: Causes of changes in brain noradrenaline systems and later effects on responses to social stressors in rhesus monkeys: The cascade hypothesis. In Antidepressants and Receptor Function, Wiley, Chichester (Ciba Foundation Symposium 123), 1986

   86. Kraemer GW: Effects of differences in early social experiences on primate neurobiological behavioral development. In Reite M, Fields T (eds): The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation. Orlando, Academic Press, 1985

   87. Krugman S: Trauma and the family: Perspectives on the intergenerational transmission of violence. In van der Kolk BA: Psychological Trauma. Washington DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1987

   88. Krystal H: Trauma and affects. Psychoanal Study Child 33:81-116, 1978

   89. Lewis D, Balla D: Delinguency and psychopathology. New York, Grune and Stratton, 1976

   90. Lewis D, Pincus J, Bard B et al: Neuropsychiatric, psychoeducational and family characteristics of 14 juveniles condemned to death in the United States, Am J Psychiatry 145:584-589, 1988

   91. Lewis D, Shanok SS, Pincus JH, et al: Violent juvenile delinquents: Psychiatric, neurological, psychological and abuse factors. J Child Psychiatry 18:307-319, 1979

   92. Lindy J: Vietnam: A Casebook. New York, Brunner/Mazel, 1987

   93. Maclean PD: Brain evolution relating to family, play and the separation call. Arch Gen Psychiatry 42;505-517, 1985

   94. Maier SF, Seligman MEP: Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. J Exp Psychol Center 105:3-46, 1976

   95. Mason WA Early social deprivation in the non-human primates: Implications for human behavior. In Glass FT (ed): Environmental Influences. New York, Rockefeller University Press, 1968

   96. McIntosh TK, Vallano ML, Barfield RJ: Effects of morphine beta-endorphin and naloxone on catecholamine levels and sexual behavior in the male rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 13:435-441, 1980

   97. Miczek KA, Thompson ML, Shuster L: Opioid-like analgesia in defeated mice. Science 215:1520-1522, 1982

   98. Mitchell D, Koleszar aS, Scopatz RA: Arousal and T-Maze choice behavior in mice: a convergent paradigm for neophobia constructs and optimal arousal theory. Learn Motiv 15:287-301, 1984

   99. Mitchell D, Osborne EW, O'Boyle MW: Habituation under stress: Shocked mice show nonassociative learning in a T-maze. Behav Neural Biol 43:212-217, 1985

100. Newman JD, Murphy MR, Harbough CR: Naxolone-reversible suppression of isolation call production after morphine injections in squirrel monkeys. Soc Neurosci Abstr 8:940, 1982

101. Novak MA, Harlow HF: Social Recovery of Monkeys isolated for the first year of life: Long-term assessment. Dev Psychol 15:50-61, 1979

102. Ochberg FM, Soskis DA: Victims of Terrorism. Boulder, Westview, 1982

103. Panksepp J: Toward a more general psychobiological theory of emotions. Behav Brain Sc 5:407-468, 1982

104. Panksepp J, Najam N, Soares F: Morphine reduces social cohesion in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 11:131-134, 1979

105. Panksepp J, Sivey SM, Normansell LA: Brain opioids and social emotions. In Reite M, Fields T (eds): The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation. Orlando, Academic Press, 198

106. Pattison EM, Kahan J: The deliberate self-harm syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 140:867-872, 1983

107. Pitman R, Orr S, Laforque D, et al: Psychophysiology of PTSD imagery in Vietnam combat veterans. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:940-976, 1987

108. Pittman R, Orr S, van der Kolk BA, et al: Opioid mediated stress induced analgesia in Vietnam combat veterans with PTSD. Unpublished manuscript, 1989

109. Pollock GH: Anniversary reactions: Trauma and mourning. Psychoanaly Q 39:347-371, 1970

110. Rainey JM, Aleem A, Ortiz A, et al: Laboratory procedures for the inducement of flashbacks. Am J Psychiatry 144:1317-1319, 1987

111. Rajecki DW, Lamb ME, Obmascher P: Toward a general theory of infantile attachment: A comparative review of aspects of the social bond. Behav Brain Sci 3:417-464, 1978

112. Rangell L: Discussion of the Buffalo Creek disaster: the course of psychic trauma. Am J Psychiatry 133:313-316, 1976

113. Reiker PP, Carmen E(H): The vicim to patient process: The disconfirmation and transformation of abuse. Am J Orthopsychiatry 56:360-370. 1986

114. Reite M, Field T: The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation, Orlando, Academic Press, 1985

115. Reite M, Short R, Seiler C: Attachment, Loss and Depression. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 22:141-169, 1981

116. Reite M, Short R, Seiler C: Physiological correlates of separation in surrogate reared infants: A study in altered attachment bonds. Dev Psychobiol 11:427-435, 1978

117. Richardson JS, Zaleski WA: Naxolone and self-mutilation. Biol Psychiatry 18:99-101, 1983

118. Rosenthal RJ, Rinzler C, Wallsh R, et al:Wrist-cutting syndrome: The meaning of a gesture. Am J Psychiatry 128:47-52, 1972

119. Rounsaville B, lifton N, Bieber M: The natural history of a psychotherapy group for battered wives. Psychiatry 42;63-78, 1978

120. Russell D: The Secret Trauma. New York, Basic Books, 1986

121. Seghorn TK, Boucher RJ, Prentky RA: Childhood sexual abuse in the lives of sexually aggressive offenders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 26:262-267, 1987

122. Sheldon AB: Preference for familiar vs. novel stimuli as a function of the familiarity of the environment. J Comp Physiol Psychol 67:516-521, 169

123. Sherman AD, Petty F: Neurochemical basis of the action of antidepressants on learned helplessness. Behav Neural Biol 30:119-134, 1980

124. Shore JH, Tatum EL, Vollmer WM: Psychiatric reactions to disaster: The Mount St. Helens experience. Am J Psychiatry 143:590-595, 1986

125. Silbert MD, Pines AM: Sexual child abuse as an antecedent to prostitution. Child Abuse Negl 5:407-411, 1981

126. Simpson CA, Porter GL: Self-mutilation in children and adolescents. Bull Menninger Clin 45:428-438, 1981

127. Solomon RL: The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. Am Psychol 35:691-712, 1980

128. Solursh L: Combat addiction: Implications in symptom maintenance and treatment planning. Paper Presented at the Third Annual Meeting of the Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Baltimore, Maryland, 1987

129. Squire LR: Memory and the Brain. New York, Oxford University Press, 1987

130. Starr MD: An opponent process of motivation. VI: Time and intensity variables in the development of separation-induced distress calling in ducklings. J Exp Psychol (Animal Behav) 4:338-355; 1978

131. Stoddard F: Stress disorders in burned out children and adolescents. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association. Dallas, 1985

132. Strauss MA: Sociological perspective on the prevention of wife-beating. In Roy M (ed): Battered Women: A Psychosociological Study of Domestic Violence, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1977

133. Strian F, Klipcera C: Die Bedeuting psychoautonomische Reaktionen im Entstehung und Persisten von Angstzusttanden. Nervenartzt 49:576-583, 1978

134. Suomi SJ: The development of affect in Rhesus monkeys. In Fox N, Davidson R (eds): The Psychology of Affective Development. Hillsdale, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum, 1984

135. Suomi SJ, Eisele CD, Grady S, et al: Depressive behavior in adult monkeys following separation from family environment. J Abnorm Psychol 84:576-578, 1978

136. Terr L: What happens to early memories of trauma? J am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1:96-104, 1988

137. van der Kolk B: Psychological Trauma. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1987

138. van der Kolk BA: Adolescent vulnerability to post traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry 48:365-370, 1985

139. van der Kolk BA, The drug treatment of PTSD. J Affect Disord 13:203-213, 1987

140. van der Kolk BA, Post traumatic stress disorder in men: The impact on the family. In Strauss M (ed): Abuse and Victimization: A Life Span Perspective. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988

141. van der Kolk, BA: The trauma spectrum: the interaction of biological and social events in the genesis of the trauma response. J Traum Stress 1:273-290, 1988

142. van der Kolk BA, Ducey CP: Clinical implications of the Rorschach in posttraumatic stress. In van der Kolk BA (ed) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Psychological and Biological Sequelae. Washington, DC, APA Press, 1984

143. van der Kolk BA, Greenberg MS, Boyd H, et al: Inescapable shock, neurotransmitters and addiction to trauma. Towards a psychobiology of post traumatic stress, Biol Psychiatry 20:414-325, 1985

143a. van der Kolk B, Herman J, Perry J: Childhood trauma and self destructive behavior in adulthood. Unpublished data, 1988

143b van der Kolk BA, Greenburg MS, Orr S, et al. Pain perception and engogenous opioids in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 25:1989

144. Visitaner MA. Volpicelli JR, Seligman MEP: Tumor rejection in rats after inescapable shock. Science 216:437-439, 1982

145. Walker L: The Battered Woman. New York, Harper and Row, 1979

146. Weiss JM, Glazer HI, Pohorecky LA, et al: Effects of chronic exposure to stressors on subsequent avoidance-escape behavior and on brain norpinephrine. Psychosom Med 37:522-524, 1975

147. Winnicott DW: Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development. New York, International Universities Press, 1965

Massachusetts Mental Health Center

Harvard Medical School

74 Fenwood Road

Boston Massachusetts 02116


*Director, Trauma Center, Massachusetts Mental Health Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts


Citation:

  • van der Kolk BA. The compulsion to repeat the trauma: re-enactment, revictimization, and masochism. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 1989;12(2):389-411.

Return to The Compulsion to Repeat the Trauma